The history of the Bishnupriya Manipuri before the 16th or 17th century is shrouded in darkness and, practically, no document has yet been found regarding the linguistic, social and cultural conditions of these people of that time. As regards the history of these people before the middle of the 18th century also, no reliable document is found. Yet, on the basis of the materials found from tradition as also from inferences based on the later social structure, we can formulate an idea of the then society of these people. The socio-cultural position of the people from the middle of the 18th century onwards is, however, clearly mentioned in the historical words of both the Indian and the western scholars.
For a systematic presentation, various aspects of the Bishnupriya Manipuri culture are being described under several heads as follows:
Fine Arts : During the reign of King Bhagya Chandra, i.e., towards the last quarter of the 18th century, the Vaisnavism of Sri Chaitanya became very much popular in Manipur and, as a result, Vaisnava ‘Pālākirtana’ with ‘mrdanga’ and ‘karatal’ became the most prominent factor of Manipuri fine arts. But the Vaisnava ‘Kirtana’ was reformed in Manipur in such a way that it expressed itself as a distinctive culture of Manipur. Of the different elements of ‘Kirtana’ ‘Mrdanga’ – dance deserves special mention. During this period, King Bhagya chandra introduced ‘Rāsalila’ in Manipur, and from that time onwards, Rāsalila became the most important aspect of Manipuri culture. ‘Kirtana is performed by the males and ‘Rasalila’, by thefemales in the costumes of the gopis, along with a boy in the costume of Sri Krsna. Both ‘Kirtana’ and Rāsalilă are performed in the most serene atmosphere.
Towards the first part of the present century, the Bishnupriyas developed a keen interest for fine arts, as a result of which ‘kirtana,’ ‘Rāsalila’ etc. rose to their zenith. And during the second quarter of this century, Manipuri dance gained a universal popularity with the patronage of Kaviguru Sri Rabindranath Tagore. Manipuri artists were, consequently, invited to every corner of India for the demonstration of Manipuri dance. Today, music centres of various places of India cannot do without Manipuri dance.
After ‘Kirtana’ and ‘Rasalila’, reference may be made to the performances of ‘Udukhala’ and ‘Rakhowala’ which are modelled on the life of Sri Krsna and are performed principally by the boys in the costumes of the ‘gopäla’s. Besides these, there are some cultural functions like ‘Kuruksetra’, ‘Laňkākāṇda,’ ‘Kansabadha’ etc. These are dramatic performances, but are attended with a number of girls singing and dancing in a circular way, as in ‘Rasalila’. The term ‘Rasa’ is therefore, commonly applied to them all.
Festivals: The Bishnupriyas perform all the important festivals connected with Hinduism, particularly with the cult of Bengal Vaisnavism. There are, however, some peculiarities in the performance of some of these festivals by the Bishnupriyas. The most Important festivals of these people are as follows
(a) The ‘Bişu‘ – festival starts from the last day of the year and continues for seven days. On the first day of the festival, cooked eatables for lunch are exchanged amongst the families of neighbourhood. From the evening of that day up to the seventh day, competitions of various games are held amongst the parties of different villages. The principal games played in ‘Bisu’ are those played with cowries and with ‘gilla’ – a flat and round piece of horn or wood.
(b) Jagannatha’s Rathajätra or Käng – festival is performed with great festivity for nine days. On the first and the last days of the festival, Chariot – procession with the idol of Lord Jagannatha is led out. Every evening of this period of nine days, devotional songs, particularly those from Jayadeva’s ‘Gitagovinda’, are sung, along with clapping and dancing, by the poeple in the ‘mandap’s or sheds for religious and cultural performances. After the singing of the devotional songs, feasts of ‘Khechuri’ or hotchpotch are given everyday by the people, by turns. Formerly, various cultural competitions were held during this festival.
(c) The most important festival of the Bishnupriyas is the ‘Kartika festival‘ which continues for a month from the ‘Laksmi Purnima’ to the ‘Rasa-Purnima’, During this period, ‘ärati’s are performed gorgeously in the evening and in the morning every day in the temples, and religious books, specially the Rāmāyana and the Mahabharata, are recited and explained at every ‘mandap’ in the evening. Moreover at this time. competitions of dance with ‘dhol’s or war-drums, or ‘jhal’s or big cymbals etc. are held almost everyday. These cultural competitions are called ‘Kārtikar Phännä’ or the competitions held in the month of Kartika.
(d) ‘Phaguwä‘ or Holi-festival is performed by the Bishnupriyas with great jubilations. This festival has been connected, on one hand, with the spring festival enjoyed by Sri Krsna and the ‘gopi’s, and on the other hand, with the spirit of Bengal Vaisnavism, because of the fact that the ‘Holi-Purnima’ coincides with the birthday of Śri Caitanya or Gauranga Mahaprabhu. On the first day of the festival, sheds are constructed in the open fields with the poles of flags raised at every house on the day of ‘Hari-Utthana’ or Utthāna-ekādaśī. In the evening of the day, the idols of Sri Gauranga are placed in those sheds and ‘arati’s are offered to him, after which the sheds are put into fire. From the second to the fourth day, groups of persons irrespective of age, sex or rank-collect alms, which are utilised for religious purposes. During these four days, boys and girls play together openly with ‘phaguwā or Holi-powder.
It is, however, a matter of great regret that all these cultural festivals are now on the wane because of changes in the ideas of social values after the spread of modern education.
Religion: The Bishnupriyas are said to be the followers of Vaisnavism from ancient times. Tradition says that an image of the Lord Visnu was installed by these people at a place in Manipur, to which was given the name Bishnupur, and as the culture of these people was concentrated to the said place, they were called Bishnupuriyas or the inhabitants of Bishnupur. It is known from the history of Manipur that during the middle of the 18th century, King Garib Nowaj of Manipur advised the people of the land to purifythemeselves by taking ceremonial ablution in the lake Nongkhrang and adopting the Rämäuti school of religion. The Bishnupriyas did not accede to this advice of the king on the plea that they were already purified by adopting the Vaisnavite religion and needed no more purification. It is. however, not clear what kind of Vaisnavism of the then Bishnupriyas were, It may be that they were converted to the Vaisnavism of Sri Caitanya during the last part of the reign of king Chorai Rongaba, i.e., towards the beginning of the 18 century, when the religion entered Manipur for the first time. It is also probable that the Vaisnavism referred to was that of Sahkaradeva of Assam. This second supposition can be supported by the following facts : First, there is a well-founded tradition that formerly there was a close cultural relation between the Assamese and the Bishnupriyas. Secondly, the Bishnupriya convention of having a ‘mandap’ in every village has a close similarity with the Assamese convention of having ‘namaghara’s. Thirdly, there is a sect among the Bishnupriyas who, like the followers of the school of Sankaradeva, are not in favour of Sraddha’ ceremony, and prefer to perform the obsequital rites only in the form of ‘nama kirtana’. Fourthly, it has been heard from the aged persons that formerly Assamese scriptures were read in the ‘mandap’s or ‘namaghara’s. However, to come back to our point, most of the Bishnupriyas were followers of some sort of Vaisnavism even before the reign of King Garib Nowaj. There is also a tradition that among the Bishnupriyas, there were some followers of the Sakta school of religion before the entrance of Bengal Vaisnavism. Today, almost all of the Bishnupriya Manipuri community are followers of Sri Caitanya, with the exception of a very few Saivas.
Marriage : It is very difficult to have a clear idea about the form of marriage prevalent among the Bishnupriyas before the entrance of Sri Caitanya’s Vaisnavism. It is quite likely that ‘Prajapatya form of marriage was most prevalent, though ‘Gandharva’ and ‘Raksasa’ forms of marriage were not absolutely taboos. At present, the ‘Prajapatya’ form of marriage, is the most dominant one. In this form of marriage, however, no ceremonial sacrifice is performed. The marriage is performed through ‘Kirtana’ under the atmosphere of the union of Radha and Krsna. Divorce and widow marriage are socially allowed. Among the Madai Gang section of the Bishnupriyas, however, widow-marriage is not permitted.
Class-System : OCCUPATION : It is quite likely that before the advent of Sri Caitanya’s Vaisnavism, there were four castes, namely, Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. Among the non-Brahmin castes, there were cultivators, goldsmiths, utensil-makers and others. Later on, all except the Brahmins began to identity themselves as Ksatriyas and now, the Ksatriyas and the Brahmins are the only two castes among the Bishnupriyas. For the majority of the non-Brahmins, cultivation is the only source of income. Weaving is the most familiar occupation of the female members of this community. Trade and commerce are quite unknown to these people. Among the different classes of people, Brahmins, Sanskrit scholars, royal descendants and artists (singers and dancers) are held in high esteem.
Women: Among the Bishnupriyas, the women were never in a neglected position. This is proved by the fact that, first, widow burning was never a custom in the Bishnupriya community. Secondly, women were allowed to work outside freely with the males, and, thirdly, there was no bar to widow-marriage. After the propagation of the Vaisnavism of Sri Caitanya, the position of women became still higher, as it is proved by the honour showed to them in religious observances, such as, Rasalila, ‘Vasaka’, ‘Kirtana’ etc.
Food : Rice, vegetable, fish and meat were the principal foodstuffs of these people before their conversion to the Vaisnavism of Sri Caitanya i.e., before the middle of the 18th century. Drinking also was familiar to them. Stories relating to eating meat of deer, boars, birds etc. are handed down through oral tradition. After their conversion to the religion of Sri Caitanya, the Bishnupriyas gave up : eating meat and drinking. Now, their principal food comprises rice, vegetable and fish. In religious and social feasts, however, fish is also not used.
Dress: Ornament : Fashion : As regards the dress of males, ‘dhuti’ and ‘kurta’ were not very familiar to the people before the reign of King Garib Nowaj. Small apparels were used by them in general. After the advent of Sri Caitanya’s Vaisnavism. ‘dhuti’ and ‘kurta’ became the principal dress of the males. Up to the last quarter of the 19 century, the males, like females, used to bear locks of long hair on the head and wear rings in the ears. Towards the beginning of this century, these fashions became obsolete.
As regards the female dress, up to the first part of this century, unmarried girls used to wear two pieces of garments. The principal garment hung from the waist and the second was used to tighten the breast. For the married women, the principal garment used to hand from the breast, and another, equally big but finer, from the head over the back. Towards the first quarter of this century, the piece of cloth used by unmarried girls to tighten their breasts was replaced by the blouse, and the married woman also began to use blouses in addition. During this time, the blouse of ‘khermaci’ or velvet ornamented by dots of lime and, later on, by ‘camaki’, a kind of fine tinplates, was very popular. At the next stage, i.e., during the forties of this century, unmarried girls began to use ‘cadar’ in addition. The principal garment for women is of two kinds. The ordinary type of garment is called ‘analuri’ or ‘lanau’, a single-coloured coarse cloth with laces on both side lengthwise, while the other type of garment, the more gorgeouos and formal one, is called ‘talaphuti’ or ‘caksabi’ which is also a coarse cloth with lengthwise stripes and embroidered on both sides lengthwise.
Of the principal ornaments of women, ‘heikuru’, ‘liksai’, ‘pundarei’, ‘thapak’ etc. are meant for the neck, nacika for the nose, ‘jhamka’, or ‘camei’, for the ears and wristlets of big size, for the wrist. Today, the married women put vermilion on the forehead and the parting – line of hair, but before the fifties of this century, this practice was not in vogue.
Formerly, unmarried girls used to get their hair cut round the face and bunches of hair that hung round the face were called ‘leisa’ or ‘sampak’. This fashion is now out-of-date.
This is, in short, the picture of the cultural features of the Bishnupriya Manipuri people.
Affinities with Neighbouring Cultures
The Bishnupriya Manipuri (BPM) culture has got some elements in common with many of the cultures of the neighbouring communities : The Meiteis, the Assamese and the Bengalis.
That the Bishnupriyas and the Meiteis share common elements of culture does not require any detailed discussion. Almost all the elements of BPM culture, barring a few, are identical with those of the Meiteis. Religious performances, finearts, festivals, marriage, dress, ornaments – all these are common to both the Meiteis and the Bishnupriyas. Of course, a number of elements of the Meitei culture are not prevalent among the Bishnupriyas. Thus, performances like ‘Lai-Harouba’, ‘Thabal-Chongbi’, and others related to the old religion of the Meiteis are notfound amongst the Bishnupriyas. It has, however, been heard fromthe aged persons of the Bishnupriyas that, formerly the Bishnupriyas also shared these performances with the Meiteis. The ‘Kartika’ festival which is performed so gorgeously by the Bishnupriyas, has very little importance in the Meitei culture.
The important cultural elements marking affinities between the Assamese and the Bishnupriyas are the following :
(a) Almost in every village of the Bishnupriyas, there is a ‘mandap’ in which religious and cultural functions are held. These ‘mandap’s have close similarities with the ‘namaghara’s of the Assamese, though there is a difference in their designs : the mandap’s of the Bishnupriyas are square in size, whereas the ‘namaghara’s of the Assamese are rectangular.
(b) Big drums called ‘dhol’ by both the Assamese and the Bishnupriyas and big cymbals called ‘barkartal’ by the Assamese and ‘jhal, by the Bishnupriyas are very commonly used by both these groups of people in their religio-cultural performances. It has been heard from some aged persons of the Bishnupriyas that formerly cultural competitions with ‘dhol’s and ‘jhal’s were held between the Assamese (Tekhaos) and the Bishnupriyas in the ‘mandap’s.
(c) In religio-cultural performances, the drummers and the singers of both the sections put on turbuns, thought there is a difference in the design of the turbans.
(d) In the ‘Rasalila’ performance of the Manipuris one or two sutradhari’s guide the participants thereof by singing throughout the performance. They have similarities with the ‘sutradhari’s taking part in the religio – cultural functions of the Assamese. The difference, however, is this that, among the Assamese, the part of a sutradhari is played by the males, whereas among the Manipuris, it is kept reserved. for the females.
(e) The Manipuri musical tune called ‘raga’ comprising four sounds of ‘tai,’ ‘ri’ ‘na’ and ‘to’, by which religio-cultural functions called ‘kirtana’ are started, is strikingly similar to the Assamese musical tune called ‘rag” comprising three sounds of ‘ta, ‘re’ and ‘na’ by which the religio-cultural functions called ‘Oja-pali’ are started. Besides the tune is of a particular type of ‘Manipurt Kirtana’ ‘called Bandes Pala. and a tune called ‘Tekhao Chanda’ in which the Bishnupriyas recite scriptures, clearly speak of Assamese influence. The tune of the Bishnupriya folk songs is also quite similar to that of the Assames folk songs. It is remarkable that a traditional song which is invariably sung by the Bishnupriyas in the ‘Khecuri Pali’ is now known to have been borrowed from Sahkaradeva’s ‘Kirtan-ghosa
(f) Manipuri ‘tala’s or musical measures called ‘Gurughat and‘Sancara’, which are played on in the ‘Kirtana’s are very much similar to the Assamese ‘tala’s called ‘Gurughat’ and Sancar, respectively, which are played on in the Sattriya’ performances. Further, some Manipuri ‘Tala’s known is ‘Tekhao Raga’, ‘Tekhao Carital, Tekhao Rupak’ etc. bear clear marks of Assamese influence.
(g) Though the most of the Indians perform the ‘Paus-sankranti and the’Caitra-Sankranti’ in general, the Assamese and the Bishnupriyas perform them more gorgeously. Particularly, the ‘Caitra-sankranti has attained a very prominent place smong both the Bishnupriyas and the Assamese. The tradition of worshipping the ‘Ghar Githani’ of Family Goddess, found in the Madai Gang section of the Bishnupriyas closely resembles the Assamese tradition of worshipping ‘Ghar Gohani.
(h) There are some among the Bishnupriyas who are against the performance of the ‘sraddha or obsequital rites according to the :injunction of the Smrtis. They are in favour of performing ‘nama-kirtana’ only in place of the obsequital rites enjoined by the Smrtis. This custom has strong similarities with that of the followers of Sri Satkaradeva, who perform the obsequitai ceremony through ‘nama-kirtana’ only.
(i) The Bishnupriyas were initiated to the religion of Sri Caitanya during the middle of the 18th century. But even before that time, these people followed some other form of Vaisnavism as is known from the “Khumal Purana’ and other sources. It seems that the early fom of Vaisnavism followed by the Bishnupriyas had some relation with the Vaisnavism of Sri Sahkaradeva, and the religio-cultural affinities between the Assamese and the Bishnupriyas are due to that religious impact.
(g) There is a group of the Assamese known as the Dhians who are living in some six or seven villages of the Cachar district in Assam. These Assamese people have been influenced by the Manipuri culture to such an extent that, excepting the case of language, it is very difficult to distinguish these people from the Manipuris. Like the Bishnupriyas, all the Dhians are followers of the Vaisnavism of Sri Caitanya. They perform ‘Rasalila and “Kirtana’ just as the Manipuris do. The marriage system and the obsequital ceremonies of these people are also same as those of the Bishnupriyas. The eating of meat and egg is totally prohibited in the Dhian society, as in the Bishnupriya society. The Dhian women put on dresses of distinctive Manipuri design. The pattern of the house steads of these poeple is also just like that of the Manipuris. Further, affinities between the Dhian dialect and BPM are greater than that’ between standard Assamese and BPM.
Elements of culture common to the Bishnupriyas and the Bengalis are only those that are related to Sri Caitanya’s Vaisnavism. As this religion was propagated among the Bishnupriyas by the Bengali-speakers, Bengali ‘padavali’s and other devotional songs were spread among these people very speedily and smoothly. All songs relating to cultural and religious performances of the Bishnupriyas are composed in Bengali. But the Bengali songs are sung in such a peculiar Manipuri tune that they express themselves as a distinctive feature of Manipuri fine arts. The distinctive features of Bengali songs are found among the Bishnupriyas in ‘pada-kirtana’, some bhatiyali songs and others only.
Src: The Bishnupriya Manipuris – Their Language, Literature & Culture, Dr. Kali Prasad Sinha